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What is Ethnic group

What is Ethnic group?

Ethnic group is a socially defined category of people who identify with each other based on a shared social experience or ancestry. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with and ideologies of shared cultural heritage, ancestry, history, homeland, language or dialect, and with symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc. With over 1.2 billion people, Han Chinese may be considered the largest ethnic group in the world.

Ethnicity is an important means by which people may identify with a larger group. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.

Ethnic group associated with or belonging to a particular race or group of people who have a culture that is different from the main culture of a country.

Ethnic group in BD.

There are many ethnic groups in Bangladesh. The following are them.

1.                   Bawm (also spelt as Bum, Baum, Bam)

2.                   Buna 

3.                   Chakma

4.                   Garo (people prefer the name Mandi)

5.                   Hajong

6.                   Horizon

7.                   Khami  (also spelt as Khumi, Kami)

8.                   Khasi  (generally known as Khasia)

9.                   Khyang  (also spelt as Khyen)

10.                Koch (also spelt as Kots, Kuch, Coach)

11.                Lushai  (also known as Kuki, Mizo)

12.                Mahat (also known as Mahatu)

13.                Manipuri  (also known as Meithei)

14.                Marma  (also known as Mag, Mogh, Mug)

15.                Mro (also spelt as Mrbo)

16.                Mrong  (also spelt as Murang, Mrung)

17.                Munda  (also known as Mundari)

18.                Oraon (also spelt as Urang, Urao)

19.                Paharia  (also known as Pahary)

20.                Pankho (also spelt as Pangkhu, Pangkhua)

21.                Rajbansi  (also spelt as Rajbongshi)

22.                Rakhaine (a branch of Marma)

23.                Sak (also spelt as Chak, Tsak, Thak)

24.                Santal (also spelt as Saontal)

25.                Tanchangya  (a branch of Chakma)

26.                Tipra  (also known as Tripuri, Tripura)

27.                Urua

The Chakmas: The Chakmas are the largest tribe of Bangladesh. The Chakmas are of mixed origin but reflect more Bengali influence than any other tribe. The Chakmas generally lived in the highland valleys. Most Chakmas are Buddhists, but some practice Hinduism or animism.

The Chakmas (Chakma or), also known as the Changma are a community that inhabits the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and the North-East India. The Chakmas are the largest ethnic group in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, making up more than half the tribal population. Chakmas are divided into 46 clans or Gozas. The Chakma has their own language, custom, culture, and profess Theravada Buddhism. The chakmas are so good in heritage and culture and found mostly in India and Bangladesh and have their own script and some chakmas population are inhabiting in china and Burma(mayanmar) and also in Thailand.

The Marmas: Marmas are the second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh and they are of Burmese (Myanmar) ancestry. The Marmas regarded Burma (Myanmar) as the centre of their cultural life. Historically it is believed that the Arakanese emperor has invaded the south-eastern region of the current Bangladesh. Since then the region was ruled under the Burmese emperor and Marma ethnic groups were established from that period. Their cultural aspect is connected to their ancestors, including dress (which is call Thumbui- the lower part, and Angi-the upper part), Food (mostly spicy, sour and hot), writing (Burmese script), traditional songs and music instrument (for example, Kappya, Jjea, Kharra so on). They speak (Marma) and the majority is (Buddhist- Theravada). They have a lot of festival during a year, but (Sangrai) is regarded as the biggest celebration among them. It is a tradition to welcome a new year according to the Buddhist moon calendar. This festival held for 3 days, and the popular ritual during the 2nd and 3rd day of the festival is to splashing water to each other. They believe that the water takes away all the sorrow and pure up our soul and body, so it must to greet each other (even strangers!) by splashing water.

Santals: The Santals are known as one of the oldest and largest indigenous communities in the northwestern belt of Bangladesh. They have been living in the pristine natural surroundings of the area for thousands of years. They might be described as children of nature who are nurtured and reared by its bounty. Santals are largely seen in the northern districts of Dinajpur, Naogaon, Thakurgaon, Panchagar, etc. The Santals are of ebony colour with little growth by way of beard, are generally of stocky build and capable of undertaking hard labour. Physically the Santals are not prepossessing. The face is round and softly contoured; the cheekbones moderately prominent; eyes full and straight, nose broad and depressed, mouth large and lips full, hair straight, black and coarse. They are long-headed and of medium height. By nature, they are very peace loving, honest, industrious and trustworthy people. They always respect their social customs and are satisfied with what they earn and what they eat. They have profound respect for the land they live in, the soil they till and the community they live with.

Manipuri: The Manipuris are one of the major ethnic communities of Bangladesh. They migrated to Bangladesh during the reign of Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (1764-1789) and the process was accelerated by the Manipuri-Burma war. After the war with Burma, Manipur was ruled by the Burmese invaders for about seven years. During that period, King Chourajit Singh accompanied by a large following of Manipuri subjects moved to areas - now in Bangladesh. At present they live in different places of Sylhet Division, like Kamalganj, Sreemongal, Kulaura and Baralekha thanas of Moulvi Bazar district; Chunarughat thana of Habiganj district and Chhatak thana of Sunamganj district. According to the 1991 population census, there were about 25,000 Manipuris in Bangladesh. As a result of their changing geographical locations and various kinds of religious and political interaction, Manipuri society became the meeting point of different ethnic groups and cultures. The mother-tongue of the Manipuris belongs to the Kuki-chin group of the Tibeto-Burman sub-family of the Mongolian family of languages. Manipuri literature is very old. It has a rich and variegated history and traditions.The most vibrant branch of Manipuri culture is dance. Rasa dance is the finest product of their culture. Manipuri dance is characterized by gentleness, tenderness and devotion. The dress they wear during a dance is really gorgeous and beautiful. Most of the festivals of the Manipuris are accompanied by the consumption of alcoholic beverages.A very popular festival of the Manipuris is a type of Gopi dance celebrating the romantic liaison of Radha and Krishna. In the spring, Manipuris celebrate Holi, when they drench each other with colour.

The Tripura: The Tripura are one of the Indingenous Peoples living both in the plain land and the CHT in Bangladesh. during the partition of the India subcontinent the princely state of Tripura were not marged neither in India nor Pakistan. However, Tripura Kingdom was marged in 1949 with the India through the Marger agreement. The peoples of Tripura both Bangladehs and Indian Tripura State shared common culture, history, tradition, history and way of livelihoods. Their languages are called Kokborok. There are more than one million peoples are speak this languages.

The Hajong: This ethnic group has been living for many generations in the hilly parts of Mymehsingh district. Some of them also live in the Sherpur, Sylhet and Netrokona regions. Hajong people are divided into two main classes-Pammarthi and Byayabchhadi. Like many other aborigines,  Hajongs are basically a farming community. At one time they were accustomed to Jhum farming but now they practise plough farming. Side by side with rice and other crops they grow cotton and make fabrics at home. In addition to these activities, people belonging to the Hajong communities collects wood from the jungle and do some other kinds of work. In terms of religious belief Hajongs are close to Hindus. They worship Durga and other Hindu gods and goddesses and also believe in reincarnation. Hajong society is patriarchal. After the death of the father the sons inherit his property. Daughters, however, are given a dowry and ornaments at the time of their marriage. Young men and women marry with their parents' consent. Rice is the staple food of Hajongs. Rice, vegetables, mutton, pork, ducks and chicken are other major items of their diet. Hajong men wear dhuti and women wear a piece of cloth to cover the upper part of the body and a separate piece for the waist downward. They usually wear homemade clothes. Hajongs lead simple lives. Most families live in thatched houses. Relatively better-off families have tin-shed or brick-built houses. Houses are neat and clean, reflecting the neatness of their lifestyle. Hajongs build and maintain community houses to meet their social needs as well as for other purposes. Hajongs have their own language, but do not have an alphabet. Their spoken language is a mixture of local dialects. Speaking in colloquial Bangla is a common practice among them. In their lifestyle, Hajong people maintain, to a large extent, their traditional ethos of simplicity, honesty, and hospitality. Dishonesty and deceit are rare in their society.

The Tanchangya: The Tanchangya people are an indigenous people in southeastern Bangladesh. There are 13 indigenous ethnic communities living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) among the 45 ethnic communities in Bangladesh. ‘Tanchangya’ is the one of them. The word “Tong” means Hill and “Taugya” means Jhum (Hilltop Sweden cultivation). So, the word Tanchangya means Hill Sweden farmer. Arakanese Tanchangyas are also known as “Doingnak”. Tanchangyas are the 5th largest indigenous ethnic community in CHT. There are many peoples who imaging that Tanchangya are the sub-tribe of Chakma community. In 1869 DC of CHT Mr. Lewin renamed Tanchangyas as the sub-tribe of Chakma and he wrote spelling “Toungjynya”. The Tanchangya living in the present Cox’s Bazar district are identified as Chakma. They call themselves as Chakma and their Bengalee neighbors also know them as Chakma. But for many specific characteristics Tanchangya community became as one of the separate ethnic community and after a long term continuous demand for separate identity of Tanchangyas community the Govt. recognized Tanchangyas as a separate community in 1989 (Rupayan Dewan; Jhum). Anthropologically Tanchangya belong to the Mongoloid group.

Tanchangya peoples have been living in CHT since its prehistoric age. Nowadays Tanchangya peoples live in Rangamati, Bandarban, Roisyabili & Sadhikyabili (Chittagong district), Ukhia and Teknaf (Cox’s bazaar district) areas of the Bangladesh. Tanchangyas also live in North-east Indian states (Assam, Tripura and Mizoram) and Rakhine State of the Myanmar. Most of Tanchangyas live in reserve forest of CHT but in 10 April’2000 Govt declared new Forest law named “The forest (Amendment) Act; 2000”, according to this act “Cultivation & preparation of cultivation on reserve forest land are illegal. The survival of these areas peoples becomes difficult for this act.

There are also confusion about the numbers and spelling of Tanchangyas. This is because of the ignorance and shallow knowledge of writers and researchers. So, it is very difficult to examine exact numbers and spelling of Tanchangyas. According to census of 2001 the number of Tanchangya 31,164 in CHT (source: solidarity2002, Bangladesh Adivasi Forum).

Tanchangya community consists of about 12 Gasha (W.W. Hunter wrote: Goza or clan). But in Bangladesh there are seven Gosha. These are (1) Karua Gosha (2) Dunya Gosha (3) Mou Gosha (4) Mongla Gosha (5) Lambacha Gosha (6) Millong Gosha (7) Ongya Gosha (Hunter; 1876). Tanchangyas communicate each other by using their own language. Where as Tanchangya language consists of Pali, Prakrit and ancient Bengali. And Tanchangys also has their own alphabets.

The Mros (Mrus or Moorangs): The Mros are considered the original inhabitants of the Chittagong Hills. They lived on valleys and often fortified their villages. They had no written language of their own, but some could read the Burmese and Bangla scripts. Most of them claimed to be Buddhists, but their religious practices were largely animistic.

The Khasia: 'Better the dance, better the crop...' a saying of the Khasias, one of the ethnic groups of Bangladesh. Earlier, Khasia people used to live along the northeast border of Sunamganj district. At present they are spread over Bishwamvarpur, Tahirpur and Chhatak in Sunamganj. Most Khasias live in the border region. Many Khasia children are found working in the tea gardens in Kulaura. According to the census in 1991, the total number of Khasias in Bangladesh was 12,300; but the Bangladesh Khasia Society claims the number to be around 30,000. In fact, the birth rate is very high among the Khasias. Khasias are short people with flat noses, high jaws and small slanting black eyes. They are fond of hills, mounds, bushes and forests. At present, more than 80% of these communities are Christians and almost every punji has its own church. But they also maintain their age-old customs and traditions. The Khasia language does not have an alphabet. Tradition has it that once upon a time they had a written script, which was destroyed by a calamity. They are bilingual and can speak Khasia as well as Bangla.

The Mandi: Mandis are short but usually have stout bodies with wide chest and thick arms and legs. They live in different areas of Bangladesh and in the adjacent parts of India. Their faces are round, black hair and eyes , deep eyebrows, small eyes, flat noses and high jaws. Beards rarely grow on their cheeks and they have almost no hair on their body. Their skin is yellow and smooth. The Mandi language is called Achichik Katha (spoken language of the hill people). It does not have any written alphabet. It is rich in proverbs, legends, rhymes and folk tales. The Mandi songs are similar in melody to Bangla folk songs. Mandis dance and sing in groups and have their own musical instruments. Mandi dances and songs are very similar to those of the Malaysian hill tribe Orang Achlis. Mandis speak in both Mandi and Bangla. Besides traditional beliefs, Mandis follow their own religion, Sangshareq, which has roots in agriculture. They are not concerned about worshipping idols and do not bother about virtue, gods and goddesses or heaven and hell.

Khasias are very hard working, and neat and clean. They have healthy dieting habits but they don't eat beef.

The Rakhain: The Rakhain, belonging to the Bhotbarmi community of the Mongoloids, came from the land Rakhain Pre, which is now known as Arakan in Myanmar. The word Rakhain originates from the word Rakshan, which means the people who preserve and safeguard their heritage and culture.

The census of 1991 recorded the Rakhain population in Bangladesh at about 7,000. More than eighty percent of them live in Ramu, Cox's Bazar, Bandarban, Manikchhari  and Teknaf. The skull of Rakhains is round, their nose is flat, they have black hair, they are usually short in height and their complexion is light brown. Though, Buddhists by faith, Rakhains, like other tribes and sub-tribes, believe in superstitions, magic and supernatural powers. They lead very simple lives. The rate of literacy in the Rakhain community is very high and some of them are highly educated. The main profession of Rakhains is farming. Both males and females take part in agricultural work. Their diet includes rice, fish, pulses and vegetables. Pork and dried fish are favourite foods. They are very hard working. Different festivals are a part of their culture. Marriage is a religious and social obligation in Rakhain society. Generally guardians arrange marriages, but nowadays love marriages are also recognized. Dowry is not accepted among Rakhains. Rakhains burn the bodies after death and bury the remains. The Shraddha ceremony for the deceased is held seven days after that person's death.

Other tribes: There are some other tribal groups in other parts of the country. Santals are inhabitants of Rajshahi and Dinajpur. Khasis, Garos, and Khajons in Mymensingh and Sylhet regions.

Different tribal groups differed in their social organization, marriage customs, foods, birth and death and other social customs from the people of the rest of the country. They have somehow managed to resist centuries of colonization and in the process have retained their own customs, traditions and life. Bangladesh also has the Mughal Tribe. Some people of Chittagong have Arab, Afghan and Portuguese ancestry. They are known as Chittagong people.

Religion

The Marma, Chakma, and Tanchangya are Buddhists and there are a few Buddhists among the other small ethnic groups of the CHT. Most people in the smaller ethnic communities of the interior parts of the CHT were animists. Some of these animists have been converted to Christianity by the Christian missionaries working in this area. Thus many of the Bawms, Lushai, and Pankho are now converted Christians. A process of Christianization is presently going on among these as well as other ethnic communities like the Mrongs and Mros.

The Garos have had their traditional religion, which is a form of animism. But the majority of them have been converted to Christianity. The Koch, Hajong, Pathor, and Manipuri are Hinduized ethnic communities. The Santals retained their traditional religion, which is based on belief in spirit (animism). However, they have been influenced by Hinduism and some of them have been converted to Christianity.

A process of Christianization has been going on in the ethnic areas since the British period. Before Christianization, however, most of the ethnic groups of the northern and north-eastern borders had been influenced by Hinduism, while those in the CHT by Buddhism. The rate of Islamization is very insignificant compared to that of Christianization. There are a few converted Muslims among the Rajbansis and also among the Garos, but their number is very insignificant in both cases.

  

Descent System and Kinship Organization

Except for the Garo and Khasi, all the ethnic communities of Bangladesh are patrilineal, i.e. they reckon descent from father's side. Property is transmitted in most cases from father to son (patrilineal inheritance), although in some cases the daughters also inherit their parents' property. The pattern of marital residence is patrilocal (wife comes at marriage to live in her husband's group) in all these patrilineal ethnic communities.

The Garo and Khasi are matrilineal, i.e they reckon descent from mother's side. The system of property inheritance in these two ethnic communities is also matrilineal (daughters inherit their mother's property). Unlike the patrilineal ethnic communities, the pattern of marital residence among the Garo and Khasi is matrilocal (husband comes at marriage to live in his wife's group). There are certain indications which suggest matrilineal and matrilocal trends among the Marma. Remnants of matrilocal residence pattern may be discovered among the Marmas living in Arakan, but not in the case of those living in the CHT (see Levi-Strauss 1952a:51). A moiety structure is found among the Garo, and to some extent, among the Bawm, while all the other ethnic communities have a clan system. A clan exogamy is practised by nearly all the ethnic communities.

    

Occupation and Economy

Almost all the ethnic communities are mainly agriculturists. The ethnic peoples in the north-western districts have long been engaged in settled wet rice cultivation, although most of them have other secondary occupations like trading, crafts, weaving, and so on. Among the ethnic .groups of Sylhet District, the main occupation of the Khasis is agriculture (main agricultural product is the betel leaf, known as Khasia Pan; their agricultural products are lemon, pineapple, jackfruit, etc.). The Manipuri are basically craftsmen (carpenter and jeweller). Gathering and selling f uelwood is the primary occupation of the Pathors.

In the CHT, all the ridge-top living ethnic communities have traditionally been engaged in shifting cultivation, known as jum. The valley-inhabiting groups of this area (mainly the Marma and Chakma) were also shifting cultivators in the past. But due to the government prohibition on shifting cultivation, most of these people had to give it up and adopt settled plough cultivation for growing wet rice.

Although the Marma and Chakma had adopted settled plough cultivation, some of them are now compelled to practise shifting cultivation mainly due to the shortage of land in the valley. Such a shortage of suitable land for plough cultivation had resulted largely from the construction of Kaptai dam for the Karnaphuli Hydroelectric Project. The creation of a lake (reservoir) by constructing a dam caused the submergence of 50,000 acres of settled, cultivated land. This area constitutes about 40 per cent of the district's total arable land. The people who were affected by the creation of this reservoir have not been adequately rehabilitated. So they have to find land in the hill-top for shifting cultivation.

But as the government Jhum Control Board keeps a check on migration from one hill to another, it is now becoming increasingly difficult for these people to support themselves. Some of the valley-inhabiting groups and a few ridge-top living ethnic communities have recently established fruit gardens (pineapple and orange), which now serve as an alternative means for their subsistence (for details of economic changes in the CHT, see the articles written by Bertocci, Jahangir, Mey, and Zaman in Qureshi 1984).

Like the ethnic communities of the CHT, the Garo of Tangail, Mymensingh and Jamalpur Districts were also shifting cultivators, but government prohibition made it imperative for them to adopt wet rice cultivation. The Garo people also found other new means of subsistence. Some of them have converted their previous jum fields to pineapple gardens, and pineapple eventually became the main source of their livelihood.

Most of the ethnic groups lived in the past in a subsistence economy, but a market economy emerged in the process of their integration into the mainstream society. Both external and internal factors had been responsible for such a shift in economy. The external factors are: the imposition of external political control (see below), settlement of non-tribal outsiders in the ethnic areas, external market forces, and so on. And the internal factors are: the adoption of wet rice cultivation, knowledge of the outside world, changes in property relations, introduction of modern education, changes in the attitude towards life, ideas of value, exploitation for money, importance of financial investment, return, and profit, and so on (see Khaleque 1982; 1983 a for an analysis of the economic changes in the case of Garo society).

 

Political Life

Centralized political authority and territorial form of organization were absent in most ethnic communities. The ethnic group as a whole, in nearly every case, was a kind of loose political unit having no significant organizational function, although ethnic affiliation had always played a certain role in their life. Every tribal village with a traditional headman was a kind of independent political unit. In most cases, the village founder or his descendants used to be the village headman, who usually had no formal authority over other villagers. The role of such a headman was to maintain peace and order in his society, organize economic activities of the villagers, and in some cases, to perform certain rituals.

However, a centralized political authority and a hierarchical administrative organization was superimposed on the ethnic people in order to. Integrate them into the wider administration of the country. After establishing political and military control over the ethnic areas the British rulers appointed revenue collectors for collecting revenue from the ethnic communities. These revenue collectors used to retain a part of the collected revenue for themselves and passed the remainder to the government. Sub-collectors were employed in turn by the collectors and the function of collecting revenues from the village communities was usually delegated to the village headmen.

The village headmen were appointed from the village leaders who seemed to be efficient for revenue collection, not necessarily from the traditional headmen. In some cases, however, the traditional headmen were also included. The village headmen who were given the responsibility of revenue collection had acquired a dominant position in their society. In most cases, they became the real administrators of their respective ethnic group. This is particularly true in the CHT areas.

Generally, the revenue collectors in the ethnic areas were the Bengali (mainly Hindu) zamindars, but in the CHT, they were appointed from among the ethnic people themselves. The whole area of the CHT was divided into three revenue "circles" and a "Raja" or "Chief" was appointed in each of them. The "circle" was, in its turn, sub-divided into "mouza," each of which consisted of several villages. One headman at both "mouza" and village level was appointed for revenue collection. Thus the ethnic communities of the CHT who were previously organized along kinship lines were subjected to a territorial system of administration.

The system of administration introduced in the British period had been continued during the Pakistani rule. The ethnic communities were incorporated into the broader framework of the national political system in 1960 when the institution of Basic Democracies was introduced in the then Pakistan. After the liberation of Bangladesh, the institution of Basic Democracies was replaced with a system of Union Parishad, which represents the local level civil administration in the ethnic areas. The revenue administration is no longer performed by village headmen, except in the case of the CHT, where the chiefs of ethnic groups and their subordinate headmen still perform this function.

Indigenous communities of Bangladesh by location

CHITTAGONG & CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS	MYMENSINGH - SYLHET REGION	NORTH BENGAL REGION
1.                    BAWM 2.                    CHAK 3.                    CHAKMA 4.                    KHEYANG 5.                    KHUMI 6.                    LUSHAI 7.                    MARMA 8.                    MRO or MURONG 9.                    PANGKHOA 10.                 RAKHAING 11.                 TANCHANGA 12.                 TRIPURA	1.                    BHUIMALI 2.                    LAHRA 3.                    MAHALI 4.                    MAHATO 5.                    MUNDA 6.                    MUSHHOR 7.                    NOONIA 8.                    ORAON 9.                    PAHAN 10.                 PALIA 11.                 RABIDAS 12.                 RAJBANGSHII 13.                 RANA 14.                 KARMAKAR 15.                 RANJOARH 16.                 SANTAL	1.                    BARMAN 2.                    BEEN 3.                    BHUMIJ 4.                    BONAJ 5.                    DALU 6.                    GARO 7.                    PANGAN

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Coastal Morphology

Coastal morphology

Coastal morphology refers to geomorphology of the coast. It is often shortened to morphology. The study of the interaction of waves and currents with the coast. The coast is shaped by tectonic and structural features, the nature of the rock forming the coast and depositional and erosive activity. The basic type of coast is determined by tectonic and structural factors that have been imprinted during formation of the continents.

Coastal Process: Mainly there are three coastal processes. They are

1.       Erosion

2.       Transportation, and

3.       Deposition

Coastal Landform:

1.       Erosional landforms

2.       Depositional landforms

Erosional landform: the landform which is created due to the erosional process is called erosional landform. There are many types of erosional landforms. They are follows:

a.       Cliff

b.      Notch

c.       Cove

d.      Cave

e.      Stack/chimney rock/Needle/Columns/Pillar/Scalp

f.        Arch

g.       Inlet

h.      Wave cut platform.   Etc.

Cliff: A cliff is a vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to erosion and weathering. Sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs. A cliff is a vertical, near vertical or sloping wall of rock or sediment that borders the sea.  They generally differ in their angle of slope because of their rock structure and geology, but the processes involved in their formation are the same. The sea cliff is the most widespread landform of coastal erosion.

Notch/Wave cut: It forms after destructive waves hit against the cliff face, causing undercutting between the high and low water marks, mainly as a result of corrosion and hydraulic power, creating a wave-cut notch. By the wave processes such as hydraulic power and abrasion, the waves undercut the face forming a wave-cut notch. The rock above hangs over the notch.

Cove: A cove is a small type of bay or coastal inlet. Coves usually have narrow, restricted entrances, are often circular or oval, and are often situated within a larger bay. Small, narrow, sheltered bays, inlets, creeks, or recesses in a coast are often considered coves. Colloquially, the term can be used to describe a sheltered bay. Coves form where rock runs in bands horizontal to the direction of wave attack. There is a band of resistant rock closest to the sea and a band of less resistant rock inland.

Cave: A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. Caves form naturally by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. The word "cave" can also refer to much smaller openings such as sea caves,  

Rock, shelters and grottos. Waves attack vertical lines of weakness in the rock known as Faults. Processes such as hydraulic action and abrasion widen these faults into cracks and eventually the waves will penetrate deeply enough to create caves. Waves are particularly good at exploiting any weakness in a rock, such as a joint. By the same processes of erosion, and particularly by hydraulic power and abrasion, any vertical line of weakness may be increased in size into a cave. However, the rock needs to be relatively hard or resistant otherwise it will collapse before the cave is formed. Once a cave has formed, when a wave breaks, it blocks off the face of the cave and traps the air within it. This compresses the air trapped inside the cave, which increases the pressure on the roof, back and sides.

Stack: A stack is a geological landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock in the sea near a coast, isolated by erosion. Stacks are formed by time, wind, and water, processes of coastal geomorphology. They are formed when part of a headland is eroded by hydraulic action, which is the force of the sea or water crashing against the rock. The force of the water weakens cracks in the headland, causing them to later collapse, forming free-standing stacks and even a small island. Without the constant presence of water, stacks also form when a natural arch collapses under gravity, due to sub-aerial processes like wind erosion. Stacks can provide important nesting locations for seabirds, and many are popular for rock climbing.

Stack is a vertical column of rock.

Arch: Once a cave has formed, when a wave breaks, it blocks off the face of the cave and traps the air within it. This compresses the air trapped inside the cave, which increases the pressure on the roof, back and sides. Where the rock has vertical lines of weakness, a blowhole can be formed extending through the roof of the cave and opening onto the cliff top. When the tide is high enough water can be forced through natural part to give a spectacular release of water and the cliff top. If the cave forms part of a narrow headland, the pressures from the waves may result in the back of the cave being pushed through to the other side so that it is open at both sides. The cave then becomes a natural arch. A natural arch or natural bridge is a natural rock formation where a rock arch forms, with an opening underneath. Most natural arches form as a narrow bridge.

Inlet: An inlet often leads to an enclosed body of water, such as a sound, bay, lagoon, or marsh. In sea coasts, an inlet usually refers to the actual connection between a bay and the ocean and is often called an "entrance" or a recession in the shore of a sea, lake, or river. A certain kind of inlet created by glaciation is a fjord, typically but not always in mountainous coastlines and also in mountain lakes.

Wave cut platform: A wave-cut platform, coastal benches, wave-cut benches or shore platform is the narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shoreline of a lake, bay, or sea that was created by the action of waves. Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat rock. Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand. It forms after destructive waves hit against the cliff face, causing undercutting between the high and low water marks, mainly as a result of corrosion and hydraulic power, creating a wave-cut notch. This notch then enlarges into a cave. The waves undermine this portion until the roof of the cave cannot hold due to the pressure and freeze-thaw weathering acting on it, and collapse, resulting in the cliff retreating landward. The base of the cave forms the wave-cut platform as attrition causes the collapsed material to be broken down into smaller pieces, while some cliff material may be washed into the sea. This may be deposited at the end of the platform, forming an off-shore terrace.

Depositional landform: Coastal deposition is the laying down of material on the coast by the sea. It occurs when waves lose energy or when large inputs of sediment are made into the coastal system - perhaps due to the arrival of fluvial sediment at a river estuary. Wave refraction in bays also encourages deposition due to the dispersal of wave energy. Lower-frequency constructive waves often contribute to deposition due to their strong swash, moving beach material inland. Depositional coasts are generally found along coast lines of gentle relief, where sediments from various sources are available. The depositional coasts are found along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. Such coasts are influenced by the erosional processes and inundation during storms. The following are the depositional landform.

a.       Sea beach

b.      Bar

c.       Off shore and long shore bar

d.      Spit

e.      Hook

f.        Head land

g.       Loop

h.      Connecting bar

i.         Looped bar

j.        Tombolo

k.       Wing head land

l.         Lagoon.

Sea beach:

A beach is a deposit of loose sediment adjacent to a body of water. Though sand is common to most beaches, a remarkable diversity of sediment size, from boulders to fine silt is found on beaches around the world. Larger particles and steeper slopes are found where wave action is high. Fine particles and gentle slopes are characteristic of beaches exposed to low wave action. A beach is a landform along the shoreline of an ocean, sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles, which are often composed of rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, or cobblestones. The particles comprising the beach are occasionally biological in origin, such as mollusk shells or coralline algae.

Bar: A bar is a somewhat linear landform within or extending into a body of water, typically composed of sand, silt or small pebbles. A bar may separate a lake from the sea, as in the case of an ayre. They are typically composed of sand, although could be of any granular matter that the moving water has access to and is capable of shifting around.

Offshore and long shore bar: the simplest coastal accumulative relief form, formed by the action of sweeping breakers. The bar has the form of a low ridge (bar), extending along the shoreline. Bars can reach hundreds of m or several km in length and 1–4 m in height; they are defined by the energy of the surf. Such bars are made of sand, gravel, pebbles, and shells. Ancient offshore bars are relicts of the old shoreline. A ridge of sand, gravel, or mud built on the seashore by waves and currents, generally parallel to the shore and submerged by high tides.

Spit: A spit or sand spit is a deposition landform found off coasts. At one end, spits connect to a head, and extend into the nose.  A spit is a type of bar or beach that develops where a re-entrant occurs, such as at cove's headlands, by the process of longshore drift. Longshore drift (also called littoral drift) occurs due to waves meeting the beach at an oblique angle, and backwashing perpendicular to the shore, moving sediment down the beach in a zigzag pattern. Longshore drifting is complemented by longshore currents, which transport sediment through the water alongside the beach. These currents are set in motion by the same oblique angle of entering waves that causes littoral drift and transport sediment in a similar process. Spits are created by the process of Long shore drift. Some eroded material ends up caught up within the waves and is carried by the sea along the coastline in cells known as littoral cells. Material is carried along the shore in a zigzag fashion by waves as they swash material up the beach at an angle and backwash material down the beach at a right angle. The angle of swash is determined by the prevailing wind (the dominant or main direction in which the wind blows).

Hook: Hook is created mainly by the ocean current due to giving pressure from one side to a spit. Hook is created from the spit due to giving pressure. Once a spit forms, wave action remains strong on the seaward side of the spit, and the longshore drift continues to transport sediment to the end of the spit, where it is deposited. The spit protects the bay from ocean waves, creating a shadow zone of calm water on its landward side. Deposition in the shadow zone at the end of the spit can cause the spit to turn landward and form a hook.

Head land: A headland is a point of land, usually high and often with a sheer drop that extends out into a body of water. The word is often used as a synonym for promontory; a headland of considerable size often being called a cape.  A headland is often referred to as simply a head, either in context or in names such as Beachy Head.

Tombolo: Away from the mouths of rivers, deposition also occurs wherever wave activity is weak. For example, a small island close to shore shelters the mainland shoreline from strong ocean waves, thus diminishing wave activity between the island and the mainland. This region is called a wave shadow zone. The longshore drift cannot pass through this quiet region because wave motion is needed to maintain longshore drift. Therefore, any sediment carried by longshore drift into such an area is deposited there. The deposition of sediment eventually builds up a sand bridge that connects the island to the mainland. The sand bridge is called a tombolo. Wave energy also dissipates in the lee of large sea stacks or islets. Wave refraction sweeps sediment behind the obstruction from two directions, depositing it as a slender finger called a tombolo.

Lagoon: Spits can extend across the mouth of a bay, but wave action is usually strong enough to wash sand out to sea or be deposited in the embayment. They may curve into the bay or stretch across connecting to the other side as a bay mouth bar. When the bay is closed off by a bar it becomes a lagoon.

Connecting bars:

Sometimes a spit is built across any stretch of water and joins Is-lands, headlands, islands and headlands. Such a spit is called a connecting bar.

Loops:

Under special conditions opposing currents may encounter littoral currents in such a way that it leads to the landward growth of hooks until they connect with the coastline forming loops.