Soil properties

Jagannath University Department of Geography & Environment: Soil properties: Soil Structure The term  soil structure  refers to the arrangement and organization of the particles which make up our soil. These p...

Soil Texture and Soil Structure:Jagannath University Department of Geography & Environment:

Jagannath University Department of Geography & Environment: Soil Texture and Soil Structure:   Soil Texture and Soil Structure Soil texture   and   soil structure   are both unique properties of the soil that will have a profoun...

Soil Texture and Soil Structure

 Soil Texture and Soil Structure

Soil texture and soil structure are both unique properties of the soil that will have a profound effect on the behavior of soils, such as water holding capacity, nutrient retention and supply, drainage, and nutrient leaching.

In soil fertility, coarser soils generally have a lesser ability to hold and retain nutrients than finer soils. However, this ability is reduced as finely-textured soils undergo intense leaching in moist environments.

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Soil Texture

Soil texture has an important role in nutrient management because it influences nutrient retention. For instance, finer textured soils tend to have greater ability to store soil nutrients.

In our discussion on soil mineral composition, we mentioned that the mineral particles of a soil are present in a wide range of size. Recall that the fine earth fraction includes all soil particles that are less than 2 mm. Soil particles within this fraction are further divided into the 3 separate size classes, which includes sand, silt, and clay. The size of sand particles range between 2.0 and 0.05 mm; silt, 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm; and clay, less than 0.002 mm. Notice that clay particles may be over one thousand times smaller than sand particles. This difference in size is largely due to the type of parent material and the degree of weathering. Sand particles are generally primary minerals that have not undergone much weathering. On the other hand, clay particles are secondary minerals that are the products of the weathering of primary minerals. As weathering continues, the soil particles break down and become smaller and smaller.

TEXTURAL TRIANGLE

Soil texture is the relative proportions of sand, silt, or clay in a soil. The soil textural class is a grouping of soils based upon these relative proportions. Soils with the finest texture are called clay soils, while soils with the coarsest texture are called sands. However, a soil that has a relatively even mixture of sand, silt, and clay and exhibits the properties from each separate is called a loam. There are different types of loams, based upon which soil separate is most abundantly present. If the percentages of clay, silt, and sand in a soil are known (primarily through laboratory analysis), you may use the textural triangle to determine the texture class of your soil.

Figure 15. Textural Triangle. The textural triangle describes the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in various types of soils.
The major textural classes for the soils of Maui are provided in Table 3. Each of the textural classes listed in Table 3 make up finely textured soils. As you can see, soil surveys show that more than 90% of Maui’s soils are finely textured. This is largely due to the type of parent material of most Hawaii soils, which is basalt. Since basalt is a finely textured rock, it weathers into finely textured soils. The relative amount of clay has great importance in the soil.

Table 3. Major textural classes of Maui soils

Textural Class	Percentage of Maui soils that fall within the major textural classes
Silty clay	44%
Silty clay loam	23%
Silty loam	11%
Loam	10%
Clay	5%

To learn more about the textural triangle and textural classifications of soil, click on the North Carolina State University animation below:

Importance of Clay and Other Particles of Similar Size

Clay particles, as well as other particles of similar size, are important components of a soil. There is a fundamental difference between soils that contain large amounts of sand particles and soils that contain large amounts of very small particles, such as clay. That difference is surface area. The total surface area of a given mass of clay is more than a thousand times the total surface area of sand particles with the same mass. To put this idea into perspective, imagine a single cube with 6 sides. This cube represents a sand particle. Now, imagine that you break this single cube up into 100 smaller cubes, which represent 100 clay particles. These 100 cubes each have 6 sides. Essentially, by breaking up the larger cube, you have exposed many more surfaces. Thus, the total surface area of the smaller cubes will be much greater than the surface area of the single cube.

To explore this concept further, view a brief animation by clicking the following link to North Carolina State University:

This increase in surface area has an important implication in nutrient management because it provides many places for soil particles to retain and supply nutrients (such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphate) and water for plant uptake

Types of Very Small Particles within the Soil

• The most common clay minerals in Maui’s soil are called layered silicate clays, or phyllosilicates. There are different types of layered silicates, such as kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, and vermiculite. The various types of layered silicates differ greatly, as we will discuss later.

For more details about the various layered silicate clay minerals, click on the link below and scroll down to the “Phyllosilicate Room:”
Amorphous minerals, such as allophane, imogolite, and ferrihydride, may be found in the volcanic soils of Hawaii that developed from volcanic ash. Like silicate clays, these minerals have a very high surface area. As a result, soils with amorphous minerals hold large amounts of water and stored nutrients, depending on the degree of weathering.

• Aluminum and iron oxides are typically found in the highly-weathered soils of the tropics. As clay minerals are intensely weathered, the structure of silicates clays change. Particularly, the silicate clays lose silica. What remains in the soil are aluminum and iron oxides. Gibbsite is an example of an aluminum oxide, which has a grayish, whitish hue. Goethite is an example of an iron oxide, which imparts a reddish color to the soil.

Properties of oxides

• Oxides are fairly stable and resistant to further weathering.
• Oxides can act like a glue and hold other soil particles together.
• Oxides can tie up nutrients, such as phosphorus.
• Oxides have a high anion exchange capacity (AEC).

• Humus is the portion of organic matter that is mostly resistant to decomposition and remains in the soil. Humus is composed of small particles, with tremendous surface area. These particles have a very great capacity to retain and supply nutrients, as well as hold water.

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Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groupings. These groupings are called peds or aggregates, which often form distinctive shapes typically found within certain soil horizons. For example, granular soil particles are characteristic of the surface horizon.

Soil aggregation is an important indicator of the workability of the soil. Soils that are well aggregated are said to have “good soil tilth.” The various types of soil structures are provided in Table 4.

Table 4. Types of Soil Structures in Soils

SOIL AGGREGATES

Generally, only the very small particles form aggregates, which includes silicate clays, volcanic ash minerals, organic matter, and oxides. There are various mechanisms of soil aggregation.

Mechanisms of soil aggregation

• Soil microorganisms excrete substances that act as cementing agents and bind soil particles together.
• Fungi have filaments, called hyphae, which extend into the soil and tie soil particles together.
• Roots also excrete sugars into the soil that help bind minerals.
• Oxides also act as glue and join particles together. This aggregation process is very common to many highly weathered tropical soils and is especially prevalent in Hawaii.
• Finally, soil particles may naturally be attracted one another through electrostatic forces, much like the attraction between hair and a balloon.

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Aggregate Stability

Stable soil aggregation is a very valuable property of productive soils. Yet, the stability of soil aggregation is very reliant on the type of minerals present in the soil. Certain clay minerals form very stable aggregates, while other clay minerals form weak aggregates that fall apart very easily.

• Highly weathered silicate clays, oxides, and amorphous volcanic materials tend to form the most stable aggregates. The presence of organic matter with these materials improves stable aggregate formation. In nutrient management, the aggregate stability is important because well-aggregated minerals are well drained and quite workable.

• In contrast, less weathered silicate clays, such as montmorillonite, form weak aggregates. Some silicate clays are said to have a shrink-swell potential. This means that the soil minerals expand, or swell, when wet, causing the soil to become sticky and drain poorly. When dry, these soils shrink and form cracks. The make-up of the lattice structure of silicate clays determines the shrink-swell potential. Although there are no soils with a shrink-swell potential in Maui, these soils may be found on Molokai.

For a simple discussion of the chemistry of soil clays, click on the following link:

To learn more detail about the structure of silicates clays, click on the next link from the University of Florida: 

Soil properties

Soil Structure

The term soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of the particles which make up our soil. These particles can be arranged in a loose and haphazard manner, or they can form a distinct, uniformly structured pattern.

Basically, there are three broad categories of soil structure:

• Single Grained
  Single grained particles are those which are totally unattached to each other. They are entirely loose.
• Massive
  when soil is tightly packed, such as in the case of dried clay, it is said to be massive.
• Aggregated
  Aggregated soil is located somewhere between the two extremes. It is an intermediate condition in which the particles are relatively alike and arranged in small clods.

Soil Consistency

Soil consistency is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil consistency is measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples.

Kinds of soil on the basis of consistency:

1)      Loose, if the soil is non-coherent (single-grain structure)

2)      Hard, if the soil resists moderate pressure, can barely be broken between the thumb and forefinger, but can be broken in the hands without difficulty.

3)       Friable, if the soil crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure.

4)      Firm, if the soil crushes under moderate pressure but resistance is noticeable

5)      Plastic, if a wire can be formed but, when it is broken and returned to its former state, it cannot be formed again

6)      Sticky, if the soil sticks to both the thumb and forefinger and tends to stretch a little and pull apart rather than pulling free from your fingers.

Soil Pores

Any open space within the soil framework. The porosity of a soil Is judged by the percentage of pore space. Water will not drain freely through the fine capillary pores, with an average pore space of less than 0.03 mm, and which retain water through surface tension, but drains freely through the larger non-capillary pores.

Pores are the sine qua non of soil. Soil without pores we call rock. Life enters the soil through the pores, and further it is sustained by them. Pores allow roots, plus other soil flora and fauna, to penetrate the soil. Pores act both as conduits for, and reservoirs of the necessities of life. Water infiltration and storage, gaseous entry and exhaust, plus chemical transport and exchange are all facilitated by the network of pores that in sum often accounts for about half of the soil's total volume.

Bulk Density:

The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive of pore spaces is called bulk density. The bulk density of a soil is always smaller than its particle density. The bulk density of sandy soil is about 1.6 g / cm3, whereas that of organic matter is about 0.5. Bulk density normally decreases, as mineral soils become finer in texture. The bulk density varies indirectly with the total pore space present in the soil and gives a good estimate of the porosity of the soil. Bulk density is of greater importance than particle density in understanding the physical behavior of the soil. Generally soils with low bulk densities have favorable physical conditions.

Factors affecting bulk density
 
1. Pore space: Since bulk density relates to the combined volume of the solids and pore spaces, soils with high proportion of pore space to solids have lower bulk densities than those that are more compact and have less pore space. Consequently, any factor that influences soil pore space will affect bulk density.

2. Texture: Fine textured surface soils such as silt loams, clays and clay loams generally have lower bulk densities than sandy soils. This is because the fine textured soils tend to organize in porous grains especially because of adequate organic matter content. This results in high pore space and low bulk density. However, in sandy soils, organic matter content is generally low, the solid particles lie close together and the bulk density is commonly higher than in fine textured soils.

3. Organic matter content: More the organic matter content in soil results in high pore space there by shows lower bulk density of soil and vice-versa.

Soil organic matter:

Soil organic matter consists of a variety of components. These include, in varying proportions and many Intermediate stages:

• raw plant residues and microorganisms
  (1 to 10 per cent)
• "active" organic traction (10 to 40 per cent)
• resistant or stable organic matter (40 to 60 per cent) also referred to as humus.

Raw plant residues, on the surface, help reduce surface wind speed and water runoff. Removal, incorporation or burning of residues predisposes the soil to serious erosion.

Organic matter serves two main functions:

• Since soil organic matter is derived mainly from plant residues, it contains all of the essential plant nutrients. Accumulated organic matter, therefore, is a storehouse of plant nutrients. Upon decomposition, the nutrients are released in a plant-available form.
• The stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and holds nutrients in a plant available form.

Organic matter does not add any "new' plant nutrients but releases nutrients in a plant available form through the process of decomposition. In order to maintain this nutrient cycling system, the rate of addition from crop residues and manure must equal the rate of decomposition.

Soil color:

Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil, however it can indicate the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected to. Soil can exhibit a wide range of color; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows and under the right conditions green. The development and distribution of color in soil results from chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material weather, the elements combine into new and colorful compounds. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual color changes, while reducing environments result in disrupted color flow with complex, mottled patterns and points of color concentration.

Causes of Soil Color

Soil color is influenced by the amount of proteins present in the soil. Yellow or red soil indicates the presence of oxides Dark brown or black color in soil indicates that the soil has a high organic matter content. Wet soil will appear darker than dry soil. However the presence of water also affects soil color by affecting the oxidation rate. Soil that has a high water content will have less air in the soil, specifically less oxygen. In well drained (and therefore oxygen rich soils) red and brown colors caused by oxidation are more common, as opposed to in wet (low oxygen) soils where the soil usually appears grey.

Significance

Drainage refers to a soil's ability to get rid of excess water, or water in the macropores, through downward movement by gravity. It is affected by topography, texture, and tilth.  With few exceptions, one would be a crop like rice; most plants need fairly good drainage. Without good drainage, plant roots would lack oxygen, nitrogen would be lost, and certain elements like iron and manganese may become soluble enough to injure plant roots. Although clay soils are more likely to have drainage problems, drainage problems also occur on other soils where the water table is close to the surface. The water table is the upper surface of the ground water below which the soil is completely saturated with water.  Soil color can be affected by drainage. Soil color can be a tool to check if your soil is having drainage problems.

Soil depth refers to how deep, top to bottom, the topsoil plus the subsoil is. Depth can be easily determined by digging a hole. Soils are classified as being deep or shallow as follows: Deep = 1 meter; Moderately Deep 0.5 to 1.0 meters; Shallow 0.25 to 0.50 meters; and Very Shallow less than 0.25 centimeters.  Soil depth is important for plants because deeper rooting means more soil to explore for nutrients and water. Greater soil depth can also mean better drainage, as long as there are no restrictive layers in the subsoil.

A field's slope has a marked influence on the amount of water runoff and soil erosion caused by flowing water. Slope is usually measured in terms of percentages. A ten percent slope has ten meter of vertical drop per 100-meter horizontal distance. Soil conservation measures become necessary on land      with as little of a slope as 1-2% to avoid erosion problems.

Soil temperature:

Soil temperature plays an important role in many processes, which take place in the soil such as chemical reactions and biological interactions. Soil temperature varies in response to exchange processes that take place primarily through the soil surface. These effects are propagated into the soil profile by transport processes and are influenced by such things as the specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity.

Factors Affecting The Soil Temperature And Its Control

1. Solar radiation:

The amount of heat from the Sun that reaches the earth is 2.0 cal/cm2 min -1 the amount of radiation received by the soil depends on angles with which the soil faces the Sun.

2. Condensation:

Whenever water vapor from soil depths or atmosphere condenses in the soil, its heat increases noticeably.

3. Evaporation:

The greater the rate of evaporation, the more the soil is cooled.

4. Rainfall:

Rainfall cools down the soil.

5. Vegetation:

A bare soil quickly absorbs heat and becomes very hot during the summer and become very cold during the winter.  Vegetation acts as a insulating agent.  It does not allow the soil to become either too hot during the summer and two cold during the winter.

6. Color of the soil:

Black colored soils absorbs more heat than light closured soils Hence black color soils are warmer than light colored soils.

7. Moisture content: 

A soil with higher moisture content is cooler than dry soil.

8. Tillage:

The cultivated soil has greater temperature amplitude as compared to the uncultivated soil.

9. Soil texture:

Soil textures affect the thermal conductivity of soil. Thermal conductivity decreases with reduction in particle size.

10. Organic matter content:

Organic matter reduces the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of soil,  increases its water holding capacity and has a dark color, which increases its heat absorbability.

11. Slope of land:
Solar radiation that reaches the land surface at an angle is scattered over a wider area than the same amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the land at right angles.  Therefore, the amount of solar radiation reaching per unit area of the land surface decreases as the slope of the land is increases.

Soil drainage:

Soil drainage refers to the soil’s natural ability to allow water to pass through it. Dense soil will hold water, while loose soil will allow water to pass through quickly. Soil drainage may determine which types of plants grow well in it.

Description

Very rapidly drained
Water is removed from the soil very rapidly in relation to supply. Excess water flows downward very rapidly if underlying material is pervious. There may be very rapid subsurface flow during heavy rainfall provided there is a steep gradient. Soils have very low available water storage capacity (usually less than 2.5 cm) within the control section and are usually coarse textured, or shallow, or both. Water source is precipitation.

Rapidly drained
Water is removed from the soil rapidly in relation to supply. Excess water flows downward if underlying material is pervious. Subsurface flow may occur on steep gradients during heavy rainfall. Soils have low available water storage capacity (2.5-4 cm) within the control section, and are usually coarse textured, or shallow, or both. Water source is precipitation.
Well drained
Water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly. Excess water flows downward readily into underlying pervious material or laterally as subsurface flow. Soils have intermediate available water storage capacity (4-5 cm) within the control section, and are generally intermediate in texture and depth. Water source is precipitation. On slopes subsurface flow may occur for short durations but additions are, equaled by losses.
Moderately well drained
Water is removed from the soil somewhat slowly in relation to supply. Excess water is removed somewhat slowly due to low perviousness, shallow water table, lack of gradient, or some combination of these. Soils have intermediate to high water storage capacity (5-6 cm) within the control section and are usually medium to fined textured. Precipitation is the dominant water source in medium to fine textured soils; precipitation and significant additions by subsurface flow are necessary in coarse textured soils.
Imperfectly drained
Water is removed from the soil sufficiently slowly in relation to supply, to keep the soil wet for a significant part of the growing season. Excess water moves slowly downward if precipitation is the major supply. If subsurface water or groundwater, or both, is the main source, the flow rate may vary but the soil remains wet for a significant part of the growing season. Precipitation is the main source if available water storage capacity is high; contribution by subsurface flow or groundwater flow, or both, increases as available water storage capacity decreases. Soils have a wide range in available water supply, texture, and depth, and are gleyed phases of well drained subgroups.
Poorly drained
Water is removed so slowly in relation to supply that the soil remains wet for a comparatively large part of the time the soil is not frozen. Excess water is evident in the soil for a large part of the time. Subsurface flow or groundwater flow, or both, in addition to precipitation are the main water sources; there may also be a perched water table, with precipitation exceeding evapotranspiration. Soils have a wide range in available water storage capacity, texture, and depth, and are gleyed subgroups, Gleysols, and Organic soils.
Very poorly drained
Water is removed from the soil so slowly that the water table remains at or on the surface for the greater part of the time the soil is not frozen. Excess water is present in the soil for the greater part of the time. Groundwater flow and subsurface flow are the major water sources. Precipitation is less important except where there is a perched water table with precipitation exceeding evapotranspiration. Soils have a wide range in available water storage capacity, texture, and depth, and are either Gleysolic or Organic.

Syllabus of Department of Geography & Environment Jagannath University

Department of Geography & Environment

Jagannath University

2^nd Year 2^nd Semester

Course Code	Course Title	Marks	Credit
GeoT-2201	Geography of Soils	50	2
GeoT-2202	Geography of Bangladesh-I	50	2
GeoT-2203	Biogeography	50	2
GeoR-2204	Statistics in Geography –I	50	2
GeoR-2205	Principles of Economics	100		3
GeoR-2206	Introduction to Computers	100	3
GeoP-2207	Pract-5: Map Projections	50	2
GeoV-2208	Viva voce	50	2
	Total	500	18

GeoT-2201: Geography of Soils                          Marks 50                     Credit -2

1. Geography of Soils: Meaning, concepts, methods and approach; Definition of Soils; Components of soil; Soil Fertility

2. Soil Genesis: Rock and Minerals; Weathering process; Soil forming factors; Soil forming process, Soil Profile

3. Physical Properties of soils: Soil color; Soil Texture and structure; Porosity of soil; Soil air and soil water; Soil Temperature

4. Chemical and organic Properties of Soils: Soil Reaction and Buffering; Ion Exchange in Soil; Soil P^H (Causes and significance); Soil organic matter and Humus

5. Soil Degradation: Soil Erosion; Soil Pollution; Soil Conservation

6. Soil Classification: Classification of World soil; Soil classification -7^th approximations

7. Soil of Bangladesh: Classification, characteristics, Environmental issues of soil degradation.

Selected Readings:

Baver, L.D. Soil Physics, Johu Wiley and sons, New York

Miller, C.E.L.M Turk and H.D. Fort. Fundamentals of soils science chapman and Hill Ltd. London. Marbat C.F. Soils: Their Genesis and classification, USA

Brammer, H. The Geography of soils of Bangladesh, University press Ltd. Dhaka. 

GeoT-2202: Geography of Bangladesh –I        Marks: 50                    Credit -2

1. Introduction to Bangladesh:

            a. Legacy of British Rule.

            b. Inequality in socio-economic development during Pakistan period.

            c. Political background and the emergency of Bangladesh as a nation. 

            d. Liberation war and independence, Geography of Liberation War.

            e. Geographical location and Boundary.

            f. Locational importance and problems.

2. The natural Environment:

            a. Geological structure. b. Physiography and Relief.

            c. Climate        d. Soil e. River system and wet lands

3. Natural Resources:

            a. Land b. Water c. Vegetation and Forest d. Minerals and powers

4. Major Issues of Environment:

            a. Natural Hazards: flood, river bank erosion, water logging, Tornado, Cyclone and Tidal surge,

            b. Soil Degradation, Arsenic Problems and Earthquakes

5. Environmental Pollution:

            a. Land, Water and Air

b. Agro-climate

            c. Major Environmental region .

Selected Readings:

1. Hamun-cr-Reslid-2009, Economic Geography, UPL, Dhaka.

            2. Brammer, H.: Geography of the soil of Bangladesh, UPL, Dhaka.

            3. Chowdhury, S.I. 1990: Arthoraitc Bhogal, DU, Dhaka (In Bangla).

            4. Elahi, K.M. (ed): Perspectives on Bangladesh Geography, Dhaka, BNGA.

            5. Harun-er-Rashid, 1995: Geography of Bangladesh, UPL, Dhaka.

6. Islam, M.A. 1995: Environment, land use and Natural Hazards in Bangladesh, University of Dhaka.

            7. Johnson, B.L.C., 1975: Bangladesh, Haineman, Landon.

            8. Khan, F., Geology of Bangladesh, UPL, Dhaka.

GeoT-2203- Biogeography                                               Marks: 50        Credit-2

1.                  Biogeography: Definition and scope, Relationship with other disciplines

2.                  Environmental factors: biotic, habitat, climatic and edaphic factors for the growth of vegetation.

3.                  Plant succession and climax; Bio-Climatology.

4.                  The Major plant, communities and their animal associates types of plant communities:

Forest communities: Grassland and desert, animals and plants communities.

5.                  Taxonomic distribution of plants and animals: Major fauna and flora areas and their significance the zoo- geographical realms and other faunas.

6.                  Bio-Diversity: meaning, elements, characteristics, change and environmental implications

7.                  Management strategies in the deciduous forest and tropical forest biomes, the role of fire in marginal biotic communities.

8.                  Nature conservation & wildlife management, theory and practices.

9.                  The role of botanical-zoological gardens in nature conservation.

10.              Flora and fauna of Bangladesh.

Books Recommended:

Edwards, K.C. The Impotence of Biogeography: Geography, vol. XLIX, 1964, pp 85-97.

Newbigin, M.L.: Plant and Animal Geography, Methuen.

Anderson, M.S.: The Geography of Livings Things English Universities Press.

Robinson. Biogeography.

Denserque, Introduction to Biogeography

 

GeoR-2204: Statistics in Geography-I                Marks: 50                   Credit: 2

1. Basic statistical concepts in Geography: nature of geographical data

2. Source of data - Primary sources – Surveys, observation, field techniques

Secondary Source- Published, Unpublished, Remote sensing –aerial photograph & satellite imagery, directories, census and historical documents.

3. Types of data: Continuous and Non-continuous: Integer and Real number, Individuals and variables: Discrete and Non- Discrete, Measurement of scale- nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio

4. Uses of statistics:  Description, inference, significance and prediction.

5. Data summarization: Frequency Table: Graphing techniques – histogram frequency polygons,

            Lorenz curve, Olive. Measurement of central tendency: Mean, Median and mode.

Measurement of dispersion:   range, mean deviation, standard, deviation, variance, Quartile, deviation: co-efficient of variation, co-efficient of Quartile and mean deviation, Nature of dispersion- skewness and kurtosis

6. Visual presentation: Graphs: Cumulative graphs, smooth typed graphs, Compound graphs, Log and

            Semi log Graphs, n-dimensional graphs.

Selected Reading:

1. Hammond, R. and Mc Cullagh , 1990 Quantitative Techniques in Geography: An Introduction, Oxford, UK.

2. Jhouston R.J 1990: Multivariate statistical Analysis in geography, Longman, USA

3. Taylor, P.J Quantitative Methods in Geography. Houghton Muffin Company, London.

4. Mahmud , A 1985 : Statistical Method in Geographical studies , Rajesh Publication, India.

5. Bjvnx, ‡K. gD`y`, cwimsL¨vb f~‡Mvj, evsjv GKv‡Wwg, XvKv-2003|  

GeoR-2205 Principles of Economics                        Mark: 100                    Credit-3

1. Fundamental of Economics: Definition, Nature and scope of economics, scarcity of resources, market economy, command economy and mixed economy. Three fundamental problems of economics society’s technological possibilities, possibilities, production possibility frontier, marginal rate of substitution, elementary knowledge of graph, slope, intercept etc.
2. Supply and Demand: Demand, quantity of demand, demand schedule, demand curve and supply, quantity of supply, supply schedule, supply curve equilibrium of supply and demand, calculation elasticity, elasticity and revenue, price elasticity of supply, cross elasticity of demand, income elasticity of demand and determinants of elasticity of demand.
3. Demand and Consumer Behavior: Choice and utility theory, law of diminishing marginal utility, optimal purchase rule, the law of demand, income and substitution effect of price, from individual to market demand substitutes and complements consumer surplus.
4. Input Decision and Production Cost: Total, average and marginal physical product, the production function, law of diminishing marginal return, returns to scale, fixed cost and variable cost, short run and long run, technological change, shape of the average cost and total cost curve, relation between average cost and marginal cost, marginal product and least cost rule, choice of input proportion.
5. Analysis of Different Market Structure:

(A)  Behavior of a competitive firm, competitive supply and marginal cost curve, short run equilibrium of a competitive firm, shut down and break even analysis, industry equilibrium in the short run and economic efficiency.

(B)   Pattern of imperfect competition, monopoly, marginal revenue and monopoly, profit margin output of monopoly, inefficiency and monopoly, dead weight loss, comparison of perfect competition and monopoly.

(C)   Basic ideas of other imperfect market structures (Oligopoly, monopolistic competition, competitive and duopoly market.)

6. Overview of Macro Economics: Objective and instruments of macro Economics, National income accounting, gross domestic product problem of double counting, investment and capital formation, net domestic product, gross national product from GDP to disposable income, net economic welfare (NEW), Employment and inflation.  

GeoR- 2206 Introduction to Computers        Marks: 100                          Credit -3

1.      Computer Concepts: An Introduction

2.      The continuing history of  the computer: Past, Present and Future

3.      Operating system

4.      Application  Software

5.      The Central Processing Unit (Component and Function).

6.      Input and Output Devices.

7.      Storage and Multimedia.

8.      Data Base Management System.

9.      Flowchart and Programming

10. Computer and Geography

11. MS Office Exercises

Book Recommended:

1.      Sander’s Donaid H. Computer Today

2.      Rahman. M. Lutfur-Computer Fundamental

3.      Subremaniam, N. Introduction to Computer  

GeoP-2207: Pract-5: Map Projections             Marks-50                     Credit-2

1. Map projection Definition, Classification on different basis and uses

2. Construction of the following projections: (at least one from each group)

2.1 Cylindrical Equal Area Projection

2.2 Mercator’s Projection

2.3 Conical Projection with on standard Parallel

2.4 Conical Projection with two Standard Parallel

2.5 Bonne’s projection

2.6 Zenithal Equal Area projection

2.7 Gnomonic projection (Polar case)

2.8 Zenithal Equidistant Projection

2.9. Stereographic Projection (Polar case)

2.10 Orthomorphic Projection (Polar Case)

3. Conventional projections

4. Combination of map projections

5. Identification and choice of map projections and their uses with emphasis on Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) and Universal Transverse Mercator’s (UTM) 

Mark Distribution
Exam	30
Practical Sheet	10
Class test attendance	10
Total	50

Books Recommended:

Singh, R.L.Elements of Practical Geography.

            Keats, J.S. Cartography, London, Longman.

            Monkhouse, F.J. Maps and Diagrams.

           Robinson, A.H. Elements of Cartography, New York, John Willy and sons.

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